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Clinical Characteristics
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A decrease of 75% or more in the secretion or action of AVP usually results in DI, a syndrome characterized by the production of abnormally large volumes of dilute urine. The 24-h urine volume exceeds 40 mL/kg body weight, and the osmolarity is <300 mosmol/L. The polyuria produces symptoms of urinary frequency, enuresis, and/or nocturia, which may disturb sleep and cause mild daytime fatigue or somnolence. It also results in a slight rise in plasma osmolarity that stimulates thirst and a commensurate increase in fluid intake (polydipsia). Overt clinical signs of dehydration are uncommon unless thirst and/or the compensatory increase of fluid intake are also impaired.
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A primary deficiency of AVP secretion usually results from agenesis or irreversible destruction of the neurohypophysis. It is referred to variously as neurohypophyseal DI, neurogenic DI, pituitary DI, cranial DI, or central DI. It can be caused by a variety of congenital, acquired, or genetic disorders, but in about one-half of all adult patients, it is idiopathic (Table 374-1). Pituitary DI caused by surgery in or around the neurohypophysis usually appears within 24 h. After a few days, it may transition to a 2- to 3-week period of inappropriate antidiuresis, after which the DI may or may not recur permanently. Five genetic forms of pituitary DI are now known. By far, the most common is transmitted in an autosomal dominant mode and is caused by diverse mutations in the coding region of one allele of the AVP–neurophysin II (or AVP-NPII) gene. All the mutations alter one or more amino acids known to be critical for correct processing and/or folding of the prohormone, thus interfering with its trafficking through the endoplasmic reticulum. The misfolded mutant precursor accumulates and interferes with production of AVP by the normal allele, eventually destroying the magnocellular neurons in which it is produced. The AVP deficiency and DI are usually not present at birth but develop gradually over a period of several months to years, progressing from partial to severe at different rates depending on the mutation. Once established, the deficiency of AVP is permanent, but for unknown reasons, the DI occasionally improves or remits spontaneously in late middle age. The parvocellular neurons that make AVP and the magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin appear to be unaffected. There are also rare autosomal recessive forms of pituitary DI. One is due to an inactivating mutation in the AVP portion of the gene; another is due to a large deletion involving the majority of the AVP gene and regulatory sequences in the intergenic region. A third form is caused by mutations of the WFS 1 gene responsible for Wolfram’s syndrome (DI, diabetes mellitus, optic atrophy, and neural deafness [DIDMOAD]). An X-linked recessive form linked to a region on Xq28 has also been described but the causative gene has not yet been identified.
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A primary deficiency of plasma AVP also can result from increased metabolism by an N-terminal aminopeptidase produced by the placenta. It is referred to as gestational DI because the signs and symptoms manifest during pregnancy and usually remit several weeks after delivery.
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Secondary deficiencies of AVP secretion result from inhibition by excessive intake of fluids. They are referred to as primary polydipsia and can be divided into three subcategories. One of them, dipsogenic DI, is characterized by inappropriate thirst caused by a reduction in the set of the osmoregulatory mechanism. It sometimes occurs in association with multifocal diseases of the brain such as neurosarcoid, tuberculous meningitis, and multiple sclerosis but is often idiopathic. The second subtype, psychogenic polydipsia, is not associated with thirst, and the polydipsia seems to be a feature of psychosis or obsessive compulsive disorder. The third subtype, iatrogenic polydipsia, results from recommendations to increase fluid intake for its presumed health benefits.
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Primary deficiencies in the antidiuretic action of AVP result in nephrogenic DI. The causes can be genetic, acquired, or drug induced (Table 374-1). The most common genetic form is transmitted in a semirecessive X-linked manner. It is caused by mutations in the coding region of the V2 receptor gene that impair trafficking and/or ligand binding of the mutant receptor. There are also autosomal recessive or dominant forms of nephrogenic DI. They are caused by AQP2 gene mutations that result in complete or partial defects in trafficking and function of the water channels that mediate antidiuresis in the distal and collecting tubules of the kidney.
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Secondary deficiencies in the antidiuretic response to AVP result from polyuria per se. They are caused by washout of the medullary concentration gradient and/or suppression of aquaporin function. They usually resolve 24–48 h after the polyuria is corrected but can complicate interpretation of some acute tests used for differential diagnosis.
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In pituitary, gestational, or nephrogenic DI, the polyuria results in a small (1–2%) decrease in body water and a commensurate increase in plasma osmolarity and sodium that stimulates thirst and a compensatory increase in water intake. As a result, hypernatremia and other overt physical or laboratory signs of dehydration do not develop unless the patient also has a defect in thirst or fails to increase fluid intake for some other reason.
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In pituitary and nephrogenic DI, the severity of the defect in AVP secretion or action varies significantly from patient to patient. In some, the defect is so severe that it cannot be overcome by even an intense stimulus such as nausea or severe dehydration. In others, the defect in AVP secretion or action is incomplete, and a modest stimulus such as a few hours of fluid deprivation, smoking, or a vasovagal reaction can raise urine osmolarity as high as 800 mosmol/L. However, even when the defects are partial, the relation of urine osmolarity to plasma AVP in patients with nephrogenic DI (Fig. 374-3A) or of plasma AVP to plasma osmolarity and sodium in patients with pituitary DI (Fig. 374-3B) is subnormal.
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In primary polydipsia, the pathogenesis of the polydipsia and polyuria is the reverse of that in pituitary, nephrogenic, and gestational DI. In primary polydipsia, an abnormality in cognition or thirst causes excessive intake of fluids and an increase in body water that reduces plasma osmolarity/sodium, AVP secretion, and urinary concentration. Dilution of the urine, in turn, results in a compensatory increase in urinary free-water excretion that usually offsets the increase in intake and stabilizes plasma osmolarity/sodium at a level only 1–2% below basal. Thus, hyponatremia or clinically appreciable overhydration is uncommon unless the polydipsia is very severe or the compensatory water diuresis is impaired by a drug or disease that stimulates or mimics the antiduretic effect of endogenous AVP. A rise in plasma osmolarity and sodium produced by fluid deprivation or hypertonic saline infusion increases plasma AVP normally. However, the resultant increase in urine concentration is often subnormal because polyuria per se temporarily reduces the capacity of the kidney to concentrate the urine. Thus, the maximum level of urine osmolarity achieved during fluid deprivation is often indistinguishable from that in patients with partial pituitary or partial nephrogenic DI.
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Differential Diagnosis
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When symptoms of urinary frequency, enuresis, nocturia, and/or persistent thirst are present in the absence of glucosuria, the possibility of DI should be evaluated by collecting a 24-h urine on ad libitum fluid intake. If the osmolarity is <300 mosmol/L and the volume >50 mL/kg per day, the patient has DI and should be evaluated further to determine the type and select appropriate therapy. If the volume and osmolarity are not concordant, the possibility of inaccurate collection can be evaluated by determining if total urinary creatinine is normal for the size of the patient (20–30 mg/kg/day).
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The type of DI can sometimes be inferred from the clinical setting or medical history. Often, however, such information is lacking, ambiguous, or misleading, and other approaches to differential diagnosis are needed. If basal plasma osmolarity and sodium are within normal limits, the traditional approach is to determine the effect of fluid deprivation and injection of antidiuretic hormone on urine osmolarity. This approach suffices for differential diagnosis if fluid deprivation raises plasma osmolarity and sodium above the normal range without inducing concentration of the urine. In that event, primary polydipsia and partial defects in AVP secretion and action are excluded, and the effect on urine osmolarity of injecting 2 μg of the AVP analogue, desmopressin indicates whether the patient has severe pituitary DI or severe nephrogenic DI. However, this approach is of little or no diagnostic value if fluid deprivation results in concentration of the urine because the increases in urine osmolarity achieved both before and after the injection of desmopressin are similar in patients with partial pituitary DI, partial nephrogenic DI, and primary polydipsia. These disorders can be differentiated by measuring plasma AVP during fluid deprivation and relating it to the concurrent level of plasma and urine osmolarity (Fig. 374-3). However, this approach does not always differentiate clearly between partial pituitary DI and primary polydipsia unless the measurement is made when plasma osmolarity and sodium are at or above the normal range. This level is difficult to achieve by fluid deprivation alone once urinary concentration occurs. Therefore, it is usually necessary to give a short infusion of 3% saline condition (0.1 mL/kg body weight per minute for 60–90 min) and repeat the measurement of plasma AVP. This approach is highly reliable for differential diagnosis but it is often stressful for the patient and requires special facilities and staff to perform safely and accurately.
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A simpler, and less stressful, but equally reliable way to differentiate between pituitary DI, nephrogenic DI, and primary polydipsia is to start by measuring basal plasma AVP and urine osmolarity under conditions of unrestricted fluid intake (Fig. 374-4). If AVP is normal or elevated (>1 pg/mL) and the concurrent urine osmolarity is low (<300 mosm/L), the patient has nephrogenic DI and the only additional evaluation required is to determine the cause. If, however, basal plasma AVP is low or undetectable (<1 pg/mL), nephrogenic DI is very unlikely and MRI of the brain can be performed to differentiate pituitary DI from primary polydipsia. In most healthy adults and children, the posterior pituitary emits a hyperintense signal visible in T1-weighted midsagittal images. This “bright spot” is almost always present in patients with primary polydipsia but is always absent or abnormally small in patients with pituitary DI, even if their AVP deficiency is partial. The MRI is also useful in searching for pathology responsible for pituitary DI or the dipsogenic form of primary polydipsia (Fig. 374-2). The principal caveat is that MRI is not reliable for differential diagnosis of DI in patients with empty sella because they typically lack a bright spot even when their AVP secretion and action are normal. MRI also cannot be used to differentiate pituitary from nephrogenic DI because many patients with nephrogenic DI also lack a posterior pituitary bright spot, probably because they have an abnormally high rate of AVP secretion and turnover.
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If MRI and/or AVP assays with the requisite sensitivity and specificity are unavailable and a fluid deprivation test is impractical or undesirable, a third way to differentiate between pituitary DI, nephrogenic DI, and primary polydipsia is a trial of desmopressin therapy. Such a trial should be conducted with very close monitoring of serum sodium as well as urine output, preferably in hospital, because desmopressin will produce hyponatremia in 8–24 h if the patient has primary polydipsia.
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TREATMENT Diabetes Insipidus
The signs and symptoms of uncomplicated pituitary DI can be eliminated by treatment with desmopressin (DDAVP), a synthetic analogue of AVP (Fig. 374-1). DDAVP acts selectively at V2 receptors to increase urine concentration and decrease urine flow in a dose-dependent manner. It is also more resistant to degradation than is AVP and has a three- to fourfold longer duration of action. DDAVP can be given by IV or SC injection, nasal inhalation, or orally by means of a tablet or melt. The doses required to control pituitary DI vary widely, depending on the patient and the route of administration. However, among adults, they usually range from 1–2 μg qd or bid by injection, 10–20 μg bid or tid by nasal spray, or 100–400 μg bid or tid orally. The onset of antidiuresis is rapid, ranging from as little as 15 min after injection to 60 min after oral administration. When given in a dose that normalizes 24-h urinary osmolarity (400–800 mosmol/L) and volume (15–30 mL/kg body weight), DDAVP produces a slight (1–3%) increase in total body water and a decrease in plasma osmolarity/sodium that rapidly eliminates thirst and polydipsia (Fig. 374-5). Consequently, water balance is maintained within the normal range. Hyponatremia rarely develops unless urine volume is reduced too far (to <10 mL/kg per day) or fluid intake is excessive due to an associated abnormality in thirst or cognition. Fortunately, thirst abnormalities are rare, and if the patient is taught to drink only when truly thirsty, DDAVP can be given safely in doses sufficient to normalize urine output without the need for allowing intermittent escape to prevent water intoxication.
Primary polydipsia cannot be treated safely with DDAVP or any other antidiuretic drug because eliminating the polyuria does not eliminate the urge to drink. Therefore, it invariably produces hyponatremia and/or other signs of water intoxication, usually within 8–24 h if urine output is normalized completely. There is no consistently effective way to correct dipsogenic or psychogenic polydipsia, but the iatrogenic form may respond to patient education. To minimize the risk of water intoxication, all patients should be warned about the use of other drugs such as thiazide diuretics or carbamazepine (Tegretol) that can impair urinary free-water excretion directly or indirectly.
The polyuria and polydipsia of nephrogenic DI are not affected by treatment with standard doses of DDAVP. If resistance is partial, it may be overcome by tenfold higher doses, but this treatment is too expensive and inconvenient for long-term use. However, treatment with conventional doses of a thiazide diuretic and/or amiloride in conjunction with a low-sodium diet and a prostaglandin synthesis inhibitor (e.g., indomethacin) usually reduces the polyuria and polydipsia by 30–70% and may eliminate them completely in some patients. Side effects such as hypokalemia and gastric irritation can be minimized by the use of amiloride or potassium supplements and by taking medications with meals.
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HYPODIPSIC HYPERNATREMIA
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An increase in plasma osmolarity/sodium above the normal range (hypertonic hypernatremia) can be caused by either a decrease in total body water or an increase in total body sodium. The former results from a failure to drink enough to replace normal or increased urinary and insensible water loss. The deficient intake can be due either to water deprivation or a lack of thirst (hypodipsia). The most common cause of an increase in total body sodium is primary hyperaldosteronism (Chap. 379). Rarely, it can also result from ingestion of hypertonic saline in the form of sea water or incorrectly prepared infant formula. However, even in these forms of hypernatremia, inadequate intake of water also contributes. This chapter focuses on hypodipsic hypernatremia, the form of hypernatremia due to a primary defect in the thirst mechanism.
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Clinical Characteristics
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Hypodipsic hypernatremia is a syndrome characterized by chronic or recurrent hypertonic dehydration. The hypernatremia varies widely in severity and usually is associated with signs of hypovolemia such as tachycardia, postural hypotension, azotemia, hyperuricemia, and hypokalemia due to secondary hyperaldosteronism. Muscle weakness, pain, rhabdomyolysis, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, and acute renal failure may also occur. Obtundation or coma may be present but are often absent. Despite inappropriately low levels of plasma AVP, DI usually is not evident at presentation but may develop during rehydration as blood volume, blood pressure, and plasma osmolarity/sodium return toward normal, further reducing plasma AVP.
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Hypodipsia is usually due to hypogenesis or destruction of the osmoreceptors in the anterior hypothalamus that regulate thirst. These defects can result from various congenital malformations of midline brain structures or may be acquired due to diseases such as occlusions of the anterior communicating artery, primary, or metastatic tumors in the hypothalamus, head trauma, surgery, granulomatous diseases such as sarcoidosis and histiocytosis, AIDS, and cytomegalovirus encephalitis. Because of their proximity, the osmoreceptors that regulate AVP secretion also are usually impaired. Thus, AVP secretion responds poorly or not at all to hyperosmotic stimulation (Fig. 374-6) but, in most cases, increases normally to nonosmotic stimuli such as nausea or large reductions in blood volume or blood pressure, indicating that the neurohypophysis is intact.
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Hypodipsia results in a failure to drink enough water to replenish obligatory renal and extrarenal losses. Consequently, plasma osmolarity and sodium rise often to extremely high levels before the disorder is recognized. In most cases, urinary loss of water contributes little, if any, to the dehydration because AVP continues to be secreted in the small amounts necessary to concentrate the urine. In some patients this appears to be due to hypovolemic stimulation and/or incomplete destruction of AVP osmoreceptors because plasma AVP declines and DI develops during rehydration (Fig. 374-6). In others, however, plasma AVP does not decline during rehydration even if they are overhydrated. Consequently, they develop a hyponatremic syndrome indistinguishable from inappropriate antidiuresis. This suggests that the AVP osmoreceptors normally provide inhibitory and stimulatory input to the neurohypophysis and the patients can no longer osmotically stimulate or suppress tonic secretion of the hormone because both inputs have been totally eliminated by the same pathology that destroyed the osmoregulation of thirst. In a few patients, the neurohypophysis is also destroyed, resulting in a combination of chronic pituitary DI and hypodipsia that is particularly difficult to manage.
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Differential Diagnosis
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Hypodipsic hypernatremia usually can be distinguished from other causes of inadequate fluid intake (e.g., coma, paralysis, restraints, absence of fresh water) by the clinical history and setting. Previous episodes and/or denial of thirst and failure to drink spontaneously when the patient is conscious, unrestrained, and hypernatremic are virtually diagnostic. The hypernatremia caused by excessive retention or intake of sodium can be distinguished by the presence of thirst as well as the physical and laboratory signs of hypervolemia rather than hypovolemia.
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TREATMENT Hypodipsic Hypernatremia
Hypodipsic hypernatremia should be treated by administering water orally if the patient is alert and cooperative or by infusing hypotonic fluids (0.45% saline or 5% dextrose and water) if the patient is not. The amount of free water in liters required to correct the deficit (ΔFW) can be estimated from body weight in kg (BW) and the serum sodium concentration in mmol/L (SNa) by the formula ΔFW = 0.5BW × ([SNa – 140]/140). If serum glucose (SGlu) is elevated, the measured SNa should be corrected (SNa*) by the formula SNa* = SNa + ([SGlu – 90]/36). This amount plus an allowance for continuing insensible and urinary losses should be given over a 24- to 48-h period. Close monitoring of serum sodium as well as fluid intake and urinary output is essential because, depending on the extent of osmoreceptor deficiency, some patients will develop AVP-deficient DI, requiring DDAVP therapy to complete rehydration; others will develop hyponatremia and a syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIAD)-like picture if overhydrated. If hyperglycemia and/or hypokalemia are present, insulin and/or potassium supplements should be given with the expectation that both can be discontinued soon after rehydration is complete. Plasma urea/creatinine should be monitored closely for signs of acute renal failure caused by rhabdomyolysis, hypovolemia, and hypotension.
Once the patient has been rehydrated, an MRI of the brain and tests of anterior pituitary function should be performed to look for the cause and collateral defects in other hypothalamic functions. A long-term management plan to prevent or minimize recurrence of the fluid and electrolyte imbalance also should be developed. This should include a practical method to regulate fluid intake in accordance with variations in water balance as indicated by changes in body weight or serum sodium determined by home monitoring analyzers. Prescribing a constant fluid intake is ineffective and potentially dangerous because it does not take into account the large, uncontrolled variations in insensible loss that inevitably result from changes in ambient temperature and physical activity.
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HYPONATREMIA DUE TO INAPPROPRIATE ANTIDIURESIS
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A decrease in plasma osmolarity/sodium below the normal range (hypotonic hyponatremia) can be due to any of three different types of salt and water imbalance: (1) an increase in total body water that exceeds the increase in total body sodium (hypervolemic hyponatremia); (2) a decrease in body sodium greater than the decrease in body water (hypovolemic hyponatremia); or (3) an increase in body water with little or no change in body sodium (euvolemic hyponatremia) (Chap. 49). All three forms are associated with a failure to fully dilute the urine and mount a water diuresis in the face of hypotonic hyponatremia. However, the disorders with which they are associated and the types of salt and water imbalance that result differ. The hypervolemic form typically occurs in disorders like severe congestive heart failure or cirrhosis in which water is retained in excessive of sodium. The hypovolemic form typically occurs in disorders such as severe diarrhea, diuretic abuse, or mineralocorticoid deficiency in which sodium is lost in excess of water. Euvolemic hyponatremia, however, is due mainly to expansion of total body water caused by excessive intake in the face of a failure to dilute the urine in response to excessive water intake. The impaired dilution is usually caused by a defect in the osmotic suppression of AVP that can have either of two causes. One is a nonhemodynamic stimulus such as nausea or a cortisol deficiency, which can be corrected quickly by treatment with antiemetics or cortisol. The other is a primary defect in osmoregulation caused by another disorder such as malignancy, stroke, or pneumonia that cannot be easily or quickly corrected. The latter is commonly known as the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH). Much less often, euvolemic hyponatremia can also result from AVP-independent activation of renal V2 receptors, a variant known as nephrogenic inappropriate antidiuresis or NSIAD. Both of the latter will be discussed in this chapter.
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Clinical Characteristics
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Antidiuresis of any cause decreases the volume and increases the concentration of urine. If not accompanied by a commensurate reduction in fluid intake or an increase in insensible loss, the reduction in urine output results in excess water retention which expands and dilutes body fluids. If the hyponatremia develops gradually or has been present for more than a few days, it may be largely asymptomatic. However, if it develops acutely, it is usually accompanied by symptoms and signs of water intoxication that may include mild headache, confusion, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, coma, and convulsions. Severe acute hyponatremia may be lethal. Other clinical signs and symptoms vary greatly, depending on the type of hyponatremia. The hypervolemic form is characterized by generalized edema and other signs of marked volume expansion. The opposite is evident in the hypovolemic form. However, overt signs of volume expansion or contraction are absent in SIADH, SIAD, NSIAD, and other forms of euvolemic hyponatremia.
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In SIADH, the inappropriate secretion of AVP can have many different causes. They include ectopic production of AVP by lung cancer or other neoplasms; eutopic release induced by various diseases or drugs; and exogenous administration of AVP, DDAVP, or large doses of oxytocin (Table 374-2). The ectopic forms result from abnormal expression of the AVP-NPII gene by primary or metastatic malignancies. The eutopic forms occur most often in patients with acute infections or strokes but have also been associated with many other neurologic diseases and injuries. The mechanisms by which these diseases interfere with osmotic suppression of AVP are not known. The defect in osmoregulation can take any of four distinct forms (Fig. 374-6). In one of the most common (reset osmostat), AVP secretion remains fully responsive to changes in plasma osmolarity/sodium, but the threshold, or set point, of the osmoregulatory system is abnormally low. These patients differ from those with the other types of SIADH in that they are able to maximally suppress plasma AVP and dilute their urine if their fluid intake is high enough to reduce their plasma osmolarity and/or sodium to the lower set point. In most patients, SIADH is self-limited and remits spontaneously within 2–3 weeks, but about 10% of cases are chronic. Another, smaller subgroup (~10% of the total) has inappropriate antidiuresis without a demonstrable defect in the osmoregulation of plasma AVP (Fig. 374-6). In some of them, all young boys, the inappropriate antidiuresis has been traced to a constitutively activating mutation of the V2 receptor gene. This unusual variant may be referred to as familial nephrogenic SIAD (NSIAD) to distinguish it from other possible causes of the syndrome. The inappropriate antidiuresis in these patients appears to be permanent, although the hyponatremia is variable owing presumably to individual differences in fluid intake.
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Impaired osmotic suppression of antidiuresis results in excessive retention of water and dilution of body fluids only if water intake exceeds insensible and urinary losses. The excess intake is sometimes due to an associated defect in the osmoregulation of thirst (dipsogenic) but can also be psychogenic or iatrogenic, including excessive IV administration of hypotonic fluids. In SIADH and other forms of euvolemic hyponatremia, the decrease in plasma osmolarity/sodium and the increase in extracellular and intracellular volume are proportional to the amount of water retained. Thus, an increase in body water of 10% (~4 L in a 70-kg adult) reduces plasma osmolarity and sodium by ~10% (~28 mosmol/L or 14 meq/L). An increase in body water of this magnitude is rarely detectable on physical examination but will be reflected in a weight gain of about 4 kg. It also increases glomerular filtration and atrial natriuretic hormone and suppresses plasma renin activity, thereby increasing urinary sodium excretion. The resultant reduction in total body sodium decreases the expansion of extracellular volume but aggravates the hyponatremia and further expands intracellular volume. The latter increases brain swelling and intracranial pressure, which probably produces most of the symptoms of acute water intoxication. Within a few days, this swelling may be counteracted by inactivation or elimination of intracellular solutes, resulting in the remission of symptoms even though the hyponatremia persists.
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In type I (hypervolemic) or type II (hypovolemic) hyponatremia, osmotic suppression of AVP secretion appears to be counteracted by a hemodynamic stimulus resulting from a large reduction in cardiac output and/or effective blood volume. The resultant antidiuresis is enhanced by decreased distal delivery of glomerular filtrate that results from increased reabsorption of sodium in proximal nephron. If the reduction in urine output is not associated with a commensurate reduction in water intake or an increase in insensible loss, body fluids are expanded and diluted, resulting in hyponatremia despite an increase in body sodium. Unlike SIADH and other forms of euvolemic hyponatremia, however, glomerular filtration is reduced and plasma renin activity and aldosterone are elevated. Thus, the rate of urinary sodium excretion is low (unless sodium reabsorption is impaired by a diuretic), and the hyponatremia is usually accompanied by edema, hypokalemia, azotemia, and hyperuricemia. In type II (hypovolemic) hyponatremia, sodium and water are also retained as an appropriate compensatory response to the severe depletion.
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Differential Diagnosis
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SIADH is a diagnosis of exclusion that usually can be made from the history, physical examination, and basic laboratory data. If hyperglycemia is present, its contribution to the reduction in plasma sodium can be estimated either by measuring plasma osmolarity for a more accurate estimate of the true “effective” tonicity of body fluids or by correcting the measured plasma sodium for the reduction caused by the hyperglycemia using the simplified formula
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corrected Pna = measured Pna + (Pglu – 90)/36
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where Pna = plasma sodium in meq/L and Pglu = plasma glucose in mg/dL.
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If the plasma osmolarity and/or corrected plasma sodium are below normal limits, hypotonic hyponatremia is present and further evaluation to determine the type should be undertaken in order to administer safe and effective treatment. This differentiation is usually possible by evaluating standard clinical indicators of the extracellular fluid volume (Table 374-3). If these findings are ambiguous or contradictory, measuring plasma renin activity or the rate of urinary sodium excretion may be helpful provided that the hyponatremia is not in the recovery phase or is due to a primary defect in renal conservation of sodium, diuretic abuse, or hyporeninemic hypoaldosteronism. The latter may be suspected if serum potassium is elevated instead of low, as it usually is in types I and II hyponatremia. Measurements of plasma AVP are currently of no value in differentiating SIADH from the other types of hyponatremia since the plasma levels are elevated similarly in all. In patients who fulfill the clinical criteria for type III (euvolemic) hyponatremia, morning plasma cortisol should also be measured to exclude secondary adrenal insufficiency. If it is normal and there is no history of nausea/vomiting, the diagnosis of SIADH is confirmed, and a careful search for occult lung cancer or other common causes of the syndrome (Table 374-2) should be undertaken.
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SIAD due to an activating mutation of the V2 receptor gene should be suspected if the hyponatremia occurs in a child or several members of the family or is refractory to treatment with a vaptan (see below). In that case, plasma AVP should be measured to confirm that it is appropriately suppressed while the hyponatremia and antidiuresis are present, and the V2 receptor gene should be sequenced, if possible.
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TREATMENT Hyponatremia
The management of hyponatremia differs depending on the type and the severity and duration of symptoms. In acute symptomatic SIADH, the aim should be to raise plasma osmolarity and/or plasma sodium at a rate ~1% an hour until they reach levels of ~270 mosmol/L or 130 meq/L, respectively. This can be accomplished in either of two ways. One is to infuse hypertonic (3%) saline at a rate of about 0.05 mL/kg body weight per min. This treatment often produces a solute diuresis that serves to remove some of the excess water. The other treatment for acute, symptomatic SIADH is to reduce body water by giving an AVP receptor-2 antagonist (vaptan) to block the antidiuretic effect of AVP and increase urine output (Fig. 374-7). One of the vaptans, a combined V2/V1a antagonist (Conivaptan), has been approved for short-term, in-hospital IV treatment of SIADH. It should be given as a loading dose of 20 mg IV over 30 min followed by a continuous infusion of 20 mg over 24 h. Another vaptan (Tolvaptan) can be given orally starting at a dose of 15 mg po and increasing to 30 mg or 60 mg at 24 h intervals depending on the effect. With either approach, fluid intake should be restricted to less than urine output. Because the aquaretic effect of the vaptans varies in magnitude from patient to patient, the rate of rise in serum sodium also varies if fluid intake is fixed at a constant rate. This variability in effect can be reduced or eliminated by continuously monitoring the rate of urine output and adjusting the rate of IV or oral fluid intake so as to reduce body water at a constant rate. Regulating fluid intake so that it under replaces urine output by 5mL/kg body weight/h will raise serum sodium at a rate of about 1% an hour. In any event, serum sodium should be checked every 2–4 h to ensure it is not raised faster than 1mEq/L per hour or above the lower limit of normal. Doing so may result in central pontine myelinolysis, an acute, potentially fatal neurologic syndrome characterized by quadriparesis, ataxia, and abnormal extraocular movements.
In chronic and/or minimally symptomatic SIADH, the hyponatremia can and should be corrected more gradually. This can be achieved by restricting total fluid intake to less than the sum of urinary and insensible losses. Because the water derived from food (300–700 mL/d) usually approximates basal insensible losses in adults, the aim should be to reduce total discretionary intake (all liquids) to ~500 mL less than urinary output. Adherence to this regimen is often problematic and, even if achieved, usually reduces body water and increases serum sodium by only about 1–2% per day. Therefore, it is often necessary to add a treatment that increases urinary water excretion. The oral AVP2 antagonist, tolvaptan, is best suited for this purpose. The best approach for treatment of chronic SIADH is the administration of an oral vaptan, tolvaptan, a selective V2 antagonist that also increases urinary water excretion by blocking the antidiuretic effect of AVP. Some restriction of fluid intake may also be necessary to achieve satisfactory control of the hyponatremia. It is approved for treatment of nonemergent SIADH with initial in-hospital dosing. Other approaches include demeclocycline, 150–300 mg PO tid or qid, which induces a reversible form of nephrogenic DI in 1–2 weeks, or fludrocortisone, 0.05–0.2 mg PO bid. The effect of the demeclocycline manifests in 7–14 days and is due to induction of a reversible form of nephrogenic DI. Fludrocortisone, 0.05–0.2 mg po bid, also raises serum sodium gradually over 1–2 weeks. Its mechanism of action is unclear but probably involves increased retention of sodium. It also increases urinary potassium excretion, which may require replacement through dietary adjustments or supplements and may induce hypertension, occasionally necessitating discontinuation of the treatment.
In the type of euvolemic hyponatremia caused by protracted nausea and vomiting or isolated glucocorticoid deficiency (type III), all abnormalities can be corrected quickly and completely by giving an antiemetic or stress doses of hydrocortisone (for glucocorticoid deficiency). As with other treatments, care must be taken to ensure that serum sodium does not rise too quickly or too far.
In SIAD due to an activating mutation of the V2 receptor, the V2 antagonists may not block the antidiuresis or raise plasma osmolarity/sodium. In that condition, use of an osmotic diuretic such as urea is reported to be effective in preventing or correcting hyponatremia. However, some vaptans may be effective in patients with a different type of activating mutation so the response to this therapy may be neither predictable nor diagnostic.
In hypervolemic hyponatremia, fluid restriction is also appropriate and somewhat effective if it can be maintained. The infusion of hypertonic saline is contraindicated because it further increases total body sodium and edema and may precipitate cardiovascular decompensation. However, as in SIADH, the V2 receptor antagonists are also safe and effective in the treatment of hypervolemic hyponatremia caused by congestive heart failure. Tolvaptan is approved by the Food and Drug Administration for this indication with the caveat that treatment should be initiated or reinitiated in hospital. Its use should also be limited to 30 days at a time because of reports that longer periods may be associated with abnormal liver chemistries.
In hypovolemic hyponatremia, the imbalance can be corrected easily and quickly by stopping the loss of sodium and water and/or replacing the deficits by mouth or IV infusion of normal or hypertonic saline. As with the treatment of other forms of hyponatremia, care must be taken to ensure that plasma sodium does not increase too rapidly or too far. Fluid restriction and administration of AVP antagonists are contraindicated in type II hyponatremia because they would only aggravate the underlying volume depletion and could result in hemodynamic collapse.
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The incidence, clinical characteristics, etiology, pathophysiology, differential diagnosis, and treatments of fluid and electrolyte disorders in tropical and nonindustrialized countries differ in some respects from those in the United States and other industrialized parts of the world. Hyponatremia, for example, appears to be more common and is more likely to be due to infectious diseases such as cholera, shigellosis, and other diarrheal disorders. In these circumstances, hyponatremia is probably due to gastrointestinal losses of salt and water (hypovolemia type II), but other abnormalities, including undefined infectious toxins, also may contribute. The causes of DI are similar worldwide except that malaria and venoms from snake or insect bites are much more common in some tropical climates.