In patients with sinus rhythm, there is evidence of LA enlargement, but right atrial (RA) enlargement also may be present when pulmonary hypertension is significant and affects RV function and size. Chronic severe MR is frequently associated with AF. In many patients, there is no clear-cut ECG evidence of enlargement of either ventricle. In others, the signs of eccentric LV hypertrophy are present.
Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is indicated to assess the mechanism of the MR and its hemodynamic severity. LV function can be assessed from LV end-diastolic and end-systolic volumes and EF. Observations can be made regarding leaflet structure and function, chordal integrity, LA and LV size, annular calcification, and regional and global LV systolic function. Doppler imaging should demonstrate the width or area of the color flow MR jet within the LA, the duration and intensity of the continuous wave Doppler signal, the pulmonary venous flow contour, the early peak mitral inflow velocity, and quantitative measures of regurgitant volume, RF, and effective regurgitant orifice area. In addition, the PA pressures (PAPs) can be estimated from the TR jet velocity. TTE is also indicated to follow the course of patients with chronic MR and to provide rapid assessment for any clinical change. Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) provides greater anatomic detail than TTE (see Fig. 236-5). Exercise testing with TTE can be useful to assess exercise capacity as well as any dynamic change in MR severity, PA systolic pressures, and biventricular function, for patients in whom there is a discrepancy between clinical findings and the results of other noninvasive testing.
The LA and LV are the dominant chambers in chronic MR. Late in the course of the disease, the LA may be massively enlarged and forms the right border of the cardiac silhouette. Pulmonary venous congestion, interstitial edema, and Kerley B lines are sometimes noted. Marked calcification of the mitral leaflets occurs commonly in patients with long-standing, combined rheumatic MR and MS. Calcification of the mitral annulus may be visualized, particularly on the lateral view of the chest. Patients with acute severe MR may have asymmetric pulmonary edema if the regurgitant jet is directed predominantly to the orifice of an upper lobe pulmonary vein.
TREATMENT Mitral Regurgitation MEDICAL TREATMENT
The management of chronic severe MR depends to some degree on its cause (Fig. 259-1). Anticoagulation with either warfarin or a direct oral agent (e.g., apixaban, rivaroxaban) should be provided if AF intervenes, as guided by the CHA2DS2-VASc risk score. The direct oral anticoagulants should not be used if rheumatic mitral stenosis is also present; they are also not approved for use in patients with mechanical prosthetic heart valves. Cardioversion should be considered depending on the clinical context, AF chronicity, LA size. In contrast to the acute setting, there are no large, long-term prospective studies to substantiate the use of vasodilators for the treatment of chronic, isolated severe MR with preserved LV systolic function in the absence of systemic hypertension. The severity of MR in the setting of an ischemic or dilated cardiomyopathy may diminish with aggressive guideline-directed treatment of heart failure including the use of diuretics, beta blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, digitalis, and biventricular pacing (cardiac resynchronization therapy [CRT]) when otherwise indicated. Antibiotic prophylaxis for prevention of IE is indicated for MR patients with a prior history of IE. Asymptomatic patients with severe MR in sinus rhythm with normal LV size and systolic function should avoid isometric forms of exercise.
Patients with acute severe MR require urgent stabilization and preparation for surgery. Diuretics, intravenous vasodilators (particularly sodium nitroprusside), and even mechanical support may be needed for patients with post-MI papillary muscle rupture or other forms of acute severe MR.
SURGICAL TREATMENT In the selection of patients with chronic, severe, primary MR for surgical treatment, the often slowly progressive nature of the condition must be balanced against the immediate and long-term risks associated with operation. These risks are significantly lower for primary valve repair than for valve replacement (Table 259-2). Repair usually consists of valve reconstruction using a variety of valvuloplasty techniques and insertion of an annuloplasty ring. Repair spares the patient the long-term adverse consequences of valve replacement, including thromboembolic and hemorrhagic complications in the case of mechanical prostheses and late valve failure necessitating repeat valve replacement in the case of bioprostheses. In addition, by preserving the integrity of the papillary muscles, subvalvular apparatus, and chordae tendineae, mitral repair and valvuloplasty maintain LV function to a relatively greater degree than does valve replacement.
Surgery for chronic severe primary MR is indicated once symptoms occur, especially if valve repair is feasible (Fig. 259-1). Surgery should also be recommended for asymptomatic patients with LV dysfunction characterized by an EF <60% or an LV end-systolic dimension (LV ESD) >40 mm. Other indications for early consideration of mitral valve repair in asymptomatic patients include (1) recent-onset AF (duration <3 months); (2) pulmonary hypertension (defined as a systolic PA pressure ≥50 mmHg at rest or ≥60 mmHg with exercise); and (3) a progressive decrease in LV EF or increase in LV ESD on serial imaging. These aggressive recommendations for surgery are predicated on the adverse long-term consequences of waiting for LV function to decline further as well as the outstanding results achievable with mitral valve repair by reference surgeons at high-volume centers. Indeed, repair of myxomatous MR (e.g., prolapse, flail) in patients <75 years with normal LV systolic function and no coronary artery disease (CAD) can now be performed by experienced surgeons with <1% perioperative mortality risk. The risk of stroke, however, is also ~1%. Repair is feasible in up to 95% of patients with myxomatous disease operated on by a high-volume surgeon in a referral center of excellence. Repair techniques include chordal transfer, creation of neochords, limited leaflet resection, and insertion of an annuloplasty band. Long-term durability is excellent; the incidence of reoperative surgery for failed primary repair is ~1% per year for the first 10 years after surgery. For patients with AF, left or biatrial maze surgery, or radiofrequency isolation of the pulmonary veins is often performed to reduce the risk of recurrent postoperative AF.
The surgical management of patients with secondary MR is more complicated. Surgery for patients with ischemic MR most often involves simultaneous coronary artery revascularization. Current surgical practice includes annuloplasty repair with an undersized, rigid ring or chord-sparing valve replacement for patients with moderate or greater degrees of MR. Valve repair for ischemic MR is associated with lower perioperative mortality rates than valve replacement but significantly higher rates of recurrent MR over time. In patients with ischemic MR and significantly impaired LV systolic function (EF <30%), the risk of surgery is higher, recovery of LV performance is incomplete, and long-term survival is reduced. Referral for surgery must be individualized and made only after aggressive attempts to improve symptoms with guideline-directed medical therapy and CRT, when indicated. The routine performance of valve repair in patients with significant secondary MR due to a dilated cardiomyopathy has not been shown to improve long-term survival compared with optimal medical therapy. Patients with acute severe MR can often be stabilized temporarily with appropriate medical therapy, but surgical correction will be necessary emergently in the case of papillary muscle rupture and within days to weeks in most other settings.
When surgical treatment is contemplated, left and right heart catheterization and left ventriculography may be helpful in confirming the presence of severe MR in patients in whom there is a discrepancy between the clinical and TTE findings that cannot be resolved with TEE or CMR. Coronary angiography identifies patients who require concomitant coronary revascularization.
TRANSCATHETER MITRAL VALVE REPAIR AND REPLACEMENT A transcatheter approach to the treatment of either primary or functional MR may be feasible in selected patients with appropriate anatomy. The proper role of currently available techniques remains under active investigation. One approach involves the deployment of a clip delivered via transseptal puncture that grasps the leading edges of the mitral leaflets in their mid-portion (anterior scallop to posterior scallop or A2-P2; Fig. 259-2). The length and width of the gap between these leading edges dictate patient eligibility. The device is commercially available. In the United States only for the treatment of prohibitive- or high-surgical risk, symptomatic patients with severe, primary (myxomatous) MR. The edge-to-edge clip technique is undergoing study in the United States for treatment of patients with symptomatic heart failure, reduced LVEF, and severe, secondary MR despite guideline-directed medical therapy. Other approaches include the deployment of a device within the coronary sinus that can be adjusted to reduce mitral annular circumference and the effective orifice area of the valve much like a surgically implanted ring. Variations in the anatomic relationship of the coronary sinus to the mitral annulus and circumflex coronary artery have limited the applicability of this technique. Attempts to reduce the septal-lateral dimension of a dilated annulus using adjustable cords placed across the LV in a subvalvular location have also been investigated. Construction of neochords to the mitral leaflets under TEE guidance using a system delivered via the cardiac apex is also under study. Investigational experience to date with transcatheter mitral valve replacement systems is in early clinical stages, although the field is evolving rapidly.