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Accessory pathways (APs) occur in 1 in 1500–2000 people and are associated with a variety of arrhythmias including narrow-complex PSVT, wide-complex tachycardias, and, rarely, sudden death. Most patients have structurally normal hearts, but APs are associated with Ebstein’s anomaly of the tricuspid valve and forms of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy including PRKAG2 mutations, Danon’s disease, and Fabry’s disease.
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APs are abnormal connections that allow conduction between the atrium and ventricles across the AV ring (Fig. 244-3). They are present from birth and are due to failure of complete partitioning of atrium and ventricle by the fibrous AV rings. They occur across either an AV valve annulus or the septum, most frequently between the left atrium and free wall of the left ventricle, followed by posteroseptal, right free wall, and anteroseptal locations. If the impulse from the sinus node conducts through the AP to the ventricle (antegrade) before the impulse conducts through the AV node and His bundle, then the ventricles are preexcited during sinus rhythm, and the ECG shows a short P-R interval (<0.12 s), slurred initial portion of the QRS (delta wave), and prolonged QRS duration produced by slow conduction through direct activation of ventricular myocardium over the AP (Fig. 244-3A). The morphology of the QRS and delta wave is determined by the AP location (Fig. 244-4) and the degree of fusion between the excitation wavefronts from conduction over the AV node and conduction over the AP. Right-sided pathways preexcite the right ventricle, producing a left bundle branch block–like configuration in lead V1, and often create marked preexcitation because of relatively close proximity of the AP to the sinus node (Fig. 244-4). Left-sided pathways preexcite the left ventricle and may produce a right bundle branch–like configuration in lead V1 and a negative delta wave in aVL, indicating initial depolarization of the lateral portion of the left ventricle that can mimic q waves of lateral wall infarction (Fig. 244-4). Because of the relatively large distance between the sinus node and left free wall APs, preexcitation may be minimal or absent on 12-lead ECG. Preexcitation due to an AP at the diaphragmatic surface of the heart, typically in the paraseptal region, produces delta waves that are negative in leads III and aVF, mimicking the q waves of inferior wall infarction (Fig. 244-4). Preexcitation can be intermittent and disappear during exercise as conduction over the AV node accelerates and may take over ventricular activation completely.
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Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome is defined as a preexcited QRS during sinus rhythm and episodes of PSVT. There are a number of variations of APs, which may not cause preexcitation and/or arrhythmias. Concealed APs allow only retrograde conduction, from ventricle to atrium, so no preexcitation is present during sinus rhythm, but SVT can occur. Other unusual forms of APs occur. Fasciculoventricular connections between the His bundle and ventricular septum produce preexcitation but do not cause arrhythmia, probably because the circuit is too short to promote reentry. Atriofascicular pathways, also known as Mahaim fibers, probably represent a duplicate AV node and His-Purkinje system that connect the right atrium to fascicles of the right bundle branch and produce a wide complex tachycardia having a left bundle branch block configuration.
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AV Reentry Tachycardia
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The most common tachycardia caused by an AP is the PSVT designated orthodromic AV reentry. The circulating reentry wavefront propagates from the atrium anterogradely over the AV node and His-Purkinje system to the ventricles and then reenters the atria via retrograde conduction over the AP (Fig. 244-3B). The QRS is narrow or may have typical right or left bundle branch block, but without preexcitation during tachycardia. Because excitation through the AV node and AP are necessary, AV or VA block results in tachycardia termination. During sinus rhythm, preexcitation is seen if the pathway also allows anterograde conduction (Fig. 244-3A). Most commonly, during tachycardia the R-P interval is shorter than the P-R interval and can resemble AVNRT (see Fig. 242-1). Unlike typical AVNRT, P waves always follow the QRS and are never simultaneous with a narrow QRS complex because the ventricles must be activated before the reentry wavefront reaches the AP and conducts back to the atrium. The morphology of the P wave is determined by the pathway location, but can be difficult to assess because it is usually inscribed during the ST segment. The p wave in posteroseptal APs is negative in leads II, III, and aVF, similar to that of AV nodal reentry, but P-wave morphology differs from AV nodal reentry for pathways in other locations (Fig. 244-4). Figure 241-3 is an example of a pathway that has clear negative P waves in leads I and aVL that was due to an AP inserting in the lateral left atrium.
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Occasionally, an AP conducts extremely slowly in the retrograde direction, resulting in tachycardia with a long R-P interval, similar to most ATs. These pathways are usually located in the septal region and have negative p waves in leads II, III, and aVF. Slow AP conduction facilitates reentry, often leading to nearly incessant tachycardia, known as permanent junctional reciprocating tachycardia (PJRT). Tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy can occur. Without an invasive electrophysiology study, it may be difficult to distinguish this form of orthodromic AV reentry from atypical AV nodal reentry or AT.
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Preexcited Tachycardias
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Preexcited tachycardia occurs when the ventricles are activated by antegrade conduction over the AP (Fig. 244-3C). The most common mechanism is antidromic AV reentry in which activation propagates from atrium to ventricle via the AP and then conducts retrogradely to the atria via the His-Purkinje system and the AV node (or rarely a second AP). The wide QRS complex is produced entirely via ventricular excitation over the AP because there is no contribution of ventricular activation over more rapidly conducting specialized His-Purkinje fibers. This tachycardia is often indistinguishable from monomorphic ventricular tachycardia. The presence of preexcitation in sinus rhythm suggests the diagnosis.
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Preexcited tachycardia also occurs if an AP allows antegrade conduction to the ventricles during AT, atrial flutter, atrial fibrillation (AF) (Fig. 244-5), or AV nodal reentry, otherwise known as bystander AP conduction. AF and atrial flutter are potentially life threatening if the AP allows very rapid repetitive conduction. Approximately 25% of APs causing preexcitation allow minimum R-to-R intervals of <250 ms during AF and are associated with a higher risk of inducing ventricular fibrillation and sudden death. Preexcited AF presents as a wide-complex, very irregular rhythm. During AF, the ventricular rate is determined by the conduction properties of the AP and AV node. The QRS complex can appear quite bizarre and change on a beat-to-beat basis due to the variability in the degree of fusion from activation over the AV node and AP, or all beats may be due to conduction over the AP (Fig. 244-5). Ventricular activation from the Purkinje system may depolarize the ventricular end of the AP and prevent atrial wavefront conduction over the AP. Slowing AV nodal conduction without slowing AP conduction can thereby facilitate AP conduction and dangerously accelerate the ventricular rate. Administration of AV nodal–blocking agents including oral or intravenous verapamil, diltiazem, beta blockers, intravenous adenosine, and intravenous amiodarone are contraindicated during preexcited AF. Rapid preexcited tachycardia should be treated with electrical cardioversion or intravenous procainamide or ibutilide, which may terminate the arrhythmia or slow the ventricular rate.
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Management of Patients with APs
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Acute management of orthodromic AV reentry is discussed below for PSVT. Patients with WPW syndrome may have wide-complex tachycardia due to antidromic AV reentry, orthodromic AV with bundle branch block, or a preexcited tachycardia, and treatment depends on the underlying rhythm.
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Initial patient evaluation should include assessment for aggravating factors, including intercurrent illness and factors that increase sympathetic tone. Examination should focus on excluding underlying heart disease. An echocardiogram is reasonable to exclude Ebstein’s anomaly and forms of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy that can be associated with APs.
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Patients with preexcitation who have symptoms of arrhythmia are at risk for developing AF and sudden death if they have an AP that allows rapid antegrade conduction. The risk of cardiac arrest is in the range of 2 per 1000 patients in adults but is likely greater in children. An invasive electrophysiology study is recommended to assess whether the pathway can support dangerously rapid heart rates if AF were to occur, and is usually combined with potentially curative catheter ablation. Catheter ablation is warranted for recurrent arrhythmias when drugs are ineffective, not tolerated, or not desired by the patient (Fig. 244-5). Efficacy is in the range of 95% depending on the location of the AP. Serious complications occur in fewer than 3% of patients, but can include AV block, cardiac tamponade, thromboemboli, coronary artery injury, and vascular access complications. Procedure mortality is <1 in 1000 patients. Alternatively attempts to gain reassurance that the AP is not high risk with ambulatory monitoring or exercise testing; abrupt loss of conduction (preexcitation) at physiologic heart rates is consistent with a low risk pathway, but is not completely reliable. Gradual loss of AP conduction with increased sympathetic tone does not reliably indicate low risk since this can occur as AV nodal conduction time shortens.
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For patients with concealed APs or known low-risk APs causing orthodromic AV reentry, chronic therapy is guided by symptoms and frequency of events. Vagal maneuvers may terminate episodes, as may a dose of beta blocker, verapamil, or diltiazem taken at the onset of an episode. Chronic therapy with these agents or flecainide can reduce the frequency of episodes in some patients.
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Adults who have preexcitation but no arrhythmia symptoms have a risk of sudden death estimated to be 1 per 1000 patient-years. Electrophysiology study is usually advised for people in occupations for which an arrhythmia occurrence would place them or others at risk, such as police, military, and pilots, or for individuals who desire evaluation for risk. Routine follow-up without therapy is reasonable in others. Children are at greater risk of sudden death, ~2 per 1000 patient-years.
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TREATMENT Paroxysmal Supraventricular Tachycardia
Acute management of narrow QRS PSVT is guided by the clinical presentation. Continuous ECG monitoring should be implemented and a 12-lead ECG should always be obtained when possible, since this may be useful in determining the mechanism. In the presence of hypotension with unconsciousness or respiratory distress, QRS-synchronous direct current cardioversion is warranted, but this is rarely needed, because intravenous adenosine works promptly in most situations (see below). For stable individuals, initial therapy takes advantage of the fact that most PSVTs are dependent on AV nodal conduction (AV nodal reentry or orthodromic AV reentry) and therefore likely to respond to sympatholytic and vagotonic maneuvers and drugs (Fig. 244-6). As these are administered, the ECG should be continuously recorded, because the response can establish the diagnosis. AV block with only transient slowing of tachycardia may expose ongoing p waves, indicating AT or atrial flutter as the mechanism.
Carotid sinus massage is reasonable provided the risk of carotid vascular disease is low, as indicated by absence of carotid bruits and no prior history of stroke. A Valsalva maneuver should be attempted in cooperative individuals, and if effective, the patient can be taught to perform this maneuver as needed. If vagal maneuvers fail or cannot be performed, intravenous adenosine will terminate the vast majority of PSVT episodes by transiently blocking conduction in the AV node. Adenosine may produce transient chest pain, dyspnea, and anxiety. It is contraindicated in patients with prior cardiac transplantation due to potential hypersensitivity. It can theoretically aggravate bronchospasm. Adenosine precipitates AF, which is usually brief, in up to 15% of patients, so it should be used cautiously in patients with WPW syndrome in whom AF may produce hemodynamic instability. Intravenous beta blockers and calcium channel blockers (verapamil or diltiazem) are also effective but may cause hypotension before and after arrhythmia termination and have a longer duration of action. These agents can also be given orally and can be taken by the patient on an as-needed basis to slow ventricular rate and facilitate termination by Valsalva maneuver.
The differential diagnosis of wide-complex tachycardia includes ventricular tachycardia (Chap. 247), PSVT with bundle branch block aberrancy, and preexcited tachycardia (see above). In general, these should be managed as ventricular tachycardia until proven otherwise. If the tachycardia is regular and the patient is stable, a trial of intravenous adenosine is reasonable. Very irregular wide-complex tachycardia is most likely preexcited AF or flutter (see above) and should be managed with cardioversion, intravenous procainamide, or ibutilide. If the diagnosis of PSVT with aberrancy is unequivocal, as may be the case in patients with prior episodes, treatment for PSVT with vagal maneuvers and adenosine is reasonable. In all cases, continuous ECG monitoring should be implemented, and emergency cardioversion and defibrillation should be available.
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